Dhe rich imagery of Revelation has caused problems for interpreters from the very beginning. This can also be seen in the chequered history of interpretation. All too often, the book is misunderstood through a literal and/or linear understanding and sometimes misused for personal interests. The respective political and/or religious context often determines the interpretation. Which directions of interpretation can be recognised? How can these be categorised? What is the underlying reason for the different interpretations? When is an interpretation appropriate?
The chequered history of the interpretation of the Apocalypse of John
The danger of eisegesis instead of exegesis is particularly evident in the interpretation of Revelation due to the inviting openness of interpretation of the numerous images and symbols in the vision cycles. It thus becomes a central text that clearly demonstrates the necessity and urgency of applying a biblical hermeneutic in order to avoid fundamentalism and/or ideological interpretations.
Exegesis of a biblical text means analysing and interpreting a text using reflective methods. The reading direction is out of the text. Eisegesis means bringing ideas, thoughts and theories into a biblical text The direction of reading is into the text. The presentation of key lines in the history of interpretation will make it clear where eisegesis dominates the interpretation of Revelation.
Lines of development and correlations
In the following, central directions of interpretation are categorised historically so that lines of development, but also correlations between exegesis and contemporary history, become clear. The limits and dangers of interpreting Revelation are made visible.
1 Revelation in antiquity
A triumphant advance of Revelation can be recognised in the early church. There is an early dissemination and appreciation due to the addressed communities of Asia Minor. In the 2nd century, the last scripture of the NT is understood as (salvation) prophecy. A millenarian-chiliastic interpretation already emerges here. The high point of the early reception can be recognised in the 2nd/3rd century. Revelation served as an aid to interpretation during the persecution of Christians and as (salvation) prophecy. A canon-theological appreciation can be recognised in this period; the anti-gnostic hermeneutics of Irenaeus are particularly noteworthy. The first commentary by Hippolytus (Commentarius in Joannis Evangelium et Apocalypsin) was also written in this early period; it develops decidedly anti-christian ideas with an anti-Judaistic flavour and the idea of the Christus princeps (Hippolytus, De Christi et Antichristo). In non-biblical writings, however, scenarios of decline and distress are not exclusively derived from Revelation (Ovid, Lactanz, Sibyllines, the fourth book of Ezra, the Syrian Baruch Apocalypse). There is a lively exchange between Jewish and Christian apocalyptic movements in both directions.
Excursus: What is chilli sauce?
The term chiliasm comes from the Greek χίλια = thousand.
It refers to a historical-theological concept originating from Jewish apocalypticism, which assumes that a period of a thousand years precedes the end of the world and the final judgement. There are various uses of this concept in church and exegetical history: both in the sense of a time of salvation or doom, as well as in a literal, symbolic chronological or eschatological interpretation.
The idea of a millennial kingdom is also found in Revelation 20. After the fall of the dragon (20,1f) by an angel, the dragon is bound and locked up in the Abyss. The dragon is described as ὁ ὄφις ὁ ἀρχαῖος in reference to Gen 3 and is further identified as Διάβολος καὶ ὁ Σατανᾶς. His imprisonment protects the nations of the earth from his deception (20:3). At the same time, the judgement of Christ takes place (20:4-6), which liberates the martyrs for the first resurrection.
After these thousand years have passed, the dragon is released for a short time (20:3). The prophet John describes a brutal battle of the dragon with Gog and Magog, which now begins and ends with the final destruction of the dragon in the burning lake of sulphur (20:10).
This is followed by another judgement of Christ, in which everyone is judged according to their deeds and receives resurrection or the second death in the lake of fire as a reward for their actions. The idea of a messianic intermediate kingdom in which peace reigns is also found in early Jewish apocalypses (1Hen, 4Esr, Bar).
Specifically: Revelation 20 is a text rich in imagery that is almost saturated with OT-Jewish pretexts. It is not surprising that it invites us to apply it to current historical events. Basically, it can be said that the richer a language is in imagery, the less concrete and transparent it is with regard to the respective contemporary context. The identification of the dragon with certain political rulers or regimes is therefore easily established in every epoch and culture.
An ideologisation of the text, which remains so enigmatic and mysterious, happened quickly. In the history of exegesis, these approaches can be recognised again and again over the centuries, both in the Apostolic Fathers (Papias and Justin Martyr) and in the Church Fathers Irenaeus and Tertullian. At the same time, there were also tendencies to combat these chiliastic ideas (Hippolytus). These ideas were adapted in both the Western and Eastern Roman empires, albeit to varying degrees. They could be more allegorically coloured if they originated from the Alexandrian exegetical tradition.
Excursus: What is allegory?
The term allegory comes from the Greek ἀλληγορέω (allegoreo) and means "to express something differently". Origen is the "founder" of allegorical exegesis. He distinguishes three layers in Holy Scripture: Material, Psychic and Pneumatic and speaks of three senses of Scripture: one literal, one moral and one allegorical. Examples of allegories in the Bible include Gen 40-41; Ez 34; Zech 1-6; Mk 4:1-9, 13-20; Gal 4:24. Specifically, the parable of the sower is a good example of an allegory: The parable speaks of the seed in the field, which produces different yields. The following allegory interprets this in a figurative sense: The sower sows the word. (Mk 4:14) and On the way the word falls on those who hear it, but Satan immediately comes and takes away the word that was sown in them. (Mark 4:15) The enigmatic imagery of Revelation is ideally suited to allegory.
Two schools of exegesis emerged in antiquity, one of which is known for its allegorical interpretations, namely the Alexandrian school (see box below).
When applied to the interpretation of Revelation, it becomes clear that a distinction can be made between a Western and Eastern Roman reception of Revelation. The development of the theological tradition during this period was very different. In the West, a rejection of Revelation by Markion and Aloger can be recognised, but at the same time the commentary by Victor of Pettau. Victor's approach is characterised by chiliasm and
characterised by an anti-Jewish interpretation.
Victor of Pettau, who died as a martyr in 304 under Diocletian, presents a spiritualising interpretation, an eschatological-historical exegesis of Revelation. Around 260, he wrote a commentary, which was not continuous, however, as central passages were missing (Rev 9; 15:6-19:10). He develops the so-called recapitulation theory, which he develops using Rev 8,2; 11,5. His intention is to prevent false prophecies. Basically, it can be said that the prophecies of Revelation are fulfilled several times in the catastrophes of history. The vision narratives are not organised chronologically and are not related to specific events.
In the West, the Vetus Latina emerged in this early period, as well as a historically critical, differentiated reading during the persecution of Christians. Theology in the East was characterised by the dispute over eschatology. Both allegorical interpretations (background: Chiliasm) and a historically differentiated view by Dionysius of Alexandria, who for the first time distinguished the author of Revelation from that of the Gospel of John and criticised Revelation, emerged.
With the Constantinian Revolution and the end of the persecution of Christians, Revelation was revalued. Emperor Constantine authorised the production of biblical codices (full Bibles with the Book of Revelation) and Christian images in public, so that the symbols from the Book of Revelation experienced a triumphant reception. In addition, Revelation 4-5 is received in the Christian liturgy; the ruler's ideology is theologically justified with Revelation.
In the period from Athanasius to the end of antiquity, the position of Revelation in the canon (Athanasius) is consolidated, even if the East continues to have reservations. Therefore, it is possible to recognise a primacy of the West in the commentary (in the sense of a spiritual reading). In Augustine, the Millennial Kingdom, which began with Jesus, is understood as a symbolic number. Jerome presents an antichiliastic interpretation. In the liturgy, Revelation becomes an integral part of the Western lectionary and in art (a cycle of pictorial representations emerges: the Carolingian Apocalypse of Trier).
2 Revelation in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, commentaries show a high awareness of tradition. The reception of Revelation 21-22 is particularly evident in church buildings. The traditions of the kingdom and the Antichrist were also further developed and the first calculations of the end times were made shortly before 800 A.D. In the 13th century, translations of Revelation (Arabic, Middle High German) were produced. The understanding of the image changes as the interpretations become more up-to-date. Revelation 12 is interpreted in Mariological terms and the veneration of Michael emerges. The periodisation of history and its threefold constitution under Father, Son and Holy Spirit by Joachim von Fiore is decisive. The 13th century is regarded as a time of eschatological hopes and sharp disputes; 1260 days are converted into years. Wyclif identifies the Pope with the Antichrist and argues in favour of the abolition of the papacy.
Excursus: Joachim von Fiore
Joachim of Fiore (1130-1202) lived in Calabria; he was influential as abbot of the Cistercian monastery in Corazzo. With the permission of Pope Clement III, he devoted himself to
meneutical studies on Revelation. His interpretation of Revelation is world and church history; he takes a historical-theological approach (allegorical exegesis) in his Expositio in Apocalypsim. Revelation is a prophecy of the correlations between world and church history; the end of the world is calculated (with a postponement of the final date). The history of time is divided into three epochs: the time of the Father (= OT), the time of the Son (= NT) and the time of the Holy Spirit (future; Rev 21). The arrival of the Antichrist is scheduled before the third epoch. This three-times doctrine focuses on the eschatological epoch (= Third Kingdom) and can be understood as a category of chiliasm.
3 Revelation in the time of the Reformation
The Reformation period is an exciting time for the interpretation of Revelation (Hussites, Erasmus, Martin Luther, Anabaptist movement). It saw a renewal of the early church's criticism of Revelation. The Hussites led to radicalisation and chiliastic hopes. Humanism leads to Erasmus' criticism of the Bible. Martin Luther disregards Revelation (it is neither apostolic nor prophetic). It is recognised as canonical by both Catholic and Reformation circles. At the same time, however, a reduction in liturgical reception (order of reading) can be recognised. Bible illustrations as well as popular receptions emerged during the Reformation period with contemporary and end-historical interpretations, updates and social revolutionary realisations (Anabaptist movement in Münster). Roman theology remained more rational and supra-historical in its approach to revelation.
Excursus: The Thousand-Year Reich in Münster
Jan Bockelson alias Jan van Leyden alias John I (1509-1536) is regarded as the ruler of the Millennial Kingdom in Münster; it is proclaimed by King John I. A Council of Twelve is installed, representing the twelve tribes of Israel. The Decalogue is understood as the basic law of theocratic rule. The community of goods of all people is practised at the dawn of the Millennial Kingdom. The bishop's troops, which were interpreted as harbingers of the Apocalypse, seemed to prove that this was imminent.
4 Revelation in the present
In addition to a fundamentalist approach, contemporary interpretations include, above all, the ideologisation of the Thousand Year Reich under National Socialism, which can clearly be understood as a misuse of the text. Political-liberation theological interpretations (anti-apartheid) go in a different direction, finding clues in the text for the fight against discriminatory and racist patterns of behaviour in society. Around the turn of the millennium(s), a "boom" in Revelation can be observed, which is characterised by calculations of the end times. Finally, it is possible to recognise attempts to understand Revelation as an interpretative category for the catastrophes of our time (climate crisis, wars).
Summary: Eisegesis - Fundamentalism
While the historical-critical method overemphasises the human aspects of the Bible, fundamentalism goes in the opposite direction and overemphasises the divine aspects of the Bible. Fundamentalism is a term that was first used in 1895 at a Bible conference in Niagara, NY. It assumes the inerrancy of the Holy Scriptures as a premise (dictate of the Holy Spirit) and tends to reject methodically reflected, scientific interpretations. The result is a literal reading of the Bible that ignores the linguistic form of the text. Under the pretence of a historical reading of the Bible, the historical context of the text is ignored. Narratives are equated with the events that interpret them, so that there is no real dialogue with culture and faith. The Bible and tradition are often separated and simple answers are given to complex questions.
Scientific exegesis always asks: Who interprets what and how? It is therefore author-centred, text-centred and/or reader-centred. The most common hermeneutic approach is that of Hans-Georg Gadamer, who understands the Bible as a dialectical process and the understanding of a text as an extended self-understanding.
